Also known as Creatine
Compound stored in skeletal muscle as phosphocreatine, buffering ATP regeneration during short, high-intensity effort; one of the most extensively studied performance-enhancing supplements for strength and lean mass.
Reported side effects:Side effects reported more often with creatine than placebo in a 6-week 5 g/day randomised trial (types not detailed in the abstract)Gastrointestinal discomfort - the only body system with enough attributable events to meta-analyse in a female-only systematic review; no increase versus placebo (RR 1.09, 95% CI 0.53-2.24)
Be careful if: certain health conditions, pregnant, breastfeeding, certain ages
Suspect a side effect? Report it to the MHRA Yellow Card scheme ↗
We link to relevant studies and leave interpretation to you and your healthcare professional.
The large figures are what the studies reported for each thing they measured. Open a card for every result.
Colour keyReported a benefitNo clear benefitUnclearPossible harmAmber is for highlights, such as where the most research is. It never means a result was good.
No figure given: Working memory (no clear benefit); Mixed thinking and memory tasks (reported a benefit); Other thinking tasks (no clear benefit); Reasoning ability (no clear benefit).
Every resultAlso measured alongside: Muscle strength (reported a benefit); Exercise performance (reported a benefit); Total and lean body mass (reported a benefit).
Every resultWhat sources report about side effects, who should be careful, and medicines to ask about first.
| Reported effect | How often | Basis | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|
| Side effects reported more often with creatine than placebo in a 6-week 5 g/day randomised trial (types not detailed in the abstract) | unknown | Listed by PubMed corpus rows (PubMed 37968687) | Sandkuhler et al. 2023, BMC Med 21:440 - randomised controlled study of creatine (5 g/day, 6 weeks) and cognitive performance (PMC10647179) |
| Gastrointestinal discomfort - the only body system with enough attributable events to meta-analyse in a female-only systematic review; no increase versus placebo (RR 1.09, 95% CI 0.53-2.24) | unknown | Listed by PubMed corpus rows (PubMed 32549301) | de Guingand et al. 2020, Nutrients 12(6):1780 - systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse outcomes with oral creatine monohydrate in females (PMC7353222) |
| Applies to | What sources say | Sources |
|---|---|---|
| certain health conditions | Pre-existing kidney disease: no authoritative UK/EU monograph exists for creatine (no SmPC, no BNF/NHS entry, no NIH ODS fact sheet); meta-analysis found no renal biomarker changes in supplemented females, but people with kidney conditions should ask a clinician before use. | de Guingand et al. 2020, Nutrients 12(6):1780 - systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse outcomes with oral creatine monohydrate in females (PMC7353222) |
| pregnant | No human pregnancy-safety data: the female-only systematic review found only preclinical animal studies and human pregnancy-metabolism studies; no trial data in pregnancy. | de Guingand et al. 2020, Nutrients 12(6):1780 - systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse outcomes with oral creatine monohydrate in females (PMC7353222) |
| breastfeeding | No breastfeeding data found in the sources checked (female-only systematic review; no NIH ODS fact sheet exists for creatine). | de Guingand et al. 2020, Nutrients 12(6):1780 - systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse outcomes with oral creatine monohydrate in females (PMC7353222) |
| certain ages | Adolescents: a 2026 systematic review found no serious renal, hepatic or cardiometabolic harms in healthy adolescents, but the evidence base is limited. | Rubinchuk et al. 2026, Cureus 18(4):e106808 - systematic review, creatine monohydrate in adolescents: renal, hepatic and cardiometabolic outcomes (PMC13158627) |
de Guingand et al. 2020, Nutrients 12(6):1780 - systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse outcomes with oral creatine monohydrate in females (PMC7353222)Rubinchuk et al. 2026, Cureus 18(4):e106808 - systematic review, creatine monohydrate in adolescents: renal, hepatic and cardiometabolic outcomes (PMC13158627)Sandkuhler et al. 2023, BMC Med 21:440 - randomised controlled study of creatine (5 g/day, 6 weeks) and cognitive performance (PMC10647179)
Audited published research for Creatine Monohydrate by condition. Drill into a pair page for the full breakdown.
What this means: Bars count reported findings, not treatment effectiveness or certainty.
One study may report several findings or appear in more than one pairing. Counts do not show the size of an effect. Comparable numerical estimates are not established for this summary.
| Compound and condition | Findings (count) | Studies (count) | Reported results (finding counts) | How sure? |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cognitive Function | 9 | 3 | Benefit: 3; no benefit: 4; harm: 1; unclear: 1; not recorded / unrecognised: 0 | Not formally graded |
| Muscle Recovery | 7 | 2 | Benefit: 6; no benefit: 1; harm: 0; unclear: 0; not recorded / unrecognised: 0 | Not formally graded |
Where people report using it and what trials suggest
Common claims the trials do not support
The most-studied sports supplement. Reliable gains in strength, power, and lean mass; growing but mixed cognitive work.
Evidence grades reflect study quality and consistency, not marketing claims.
Ordered by strength of evidence, then result direction.
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4 of 23 referenced studies are marked supplier-affiliated in the corpus.
Reported results grouped by condition. Values and units are preserved as recorded; missing information is not estimated.
How to read this table
Reported direction, numerical results and study design are separate. Certainty has not been formally graded in this table.
| What was measured | Reported findings | Result and units | Reported sample and duration | Study / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| memory performance (older adults) | Memory improved with SMD 0.88 vs placebo in older adults (66-76 years) over 5 days to 24 weeks. (95%CI, 0.22-1.55; P=0.009)Benefit seen | 0.88 SMD Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: 5 days to 24 weeks | Meta-analysis · 2023 Study detailsEffects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Meta-Analysis |
| memory performance (overall) | Memory improved with SMD 0.29 vs placebo in healthy individuals over 5 days to 24 weeks. (95%CI, 0.04-0.53; P=0.02)Benefit seen | 0.29 SMD Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: 5 days to 24 weeks | Meta-analysis · 2023 Study detailsEffects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Meta-Analysis |
| memory performance (younger counterparts) | No significant memory benefit vs placebo found in younger counterparts (11-31 years) over 5 days to 24 weeks. (95%CI, -0.14 to 0.20; P=0.72)No clear benefit | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: 5 days to 24 weeks | Meta-analysis · 2023 Study detailsEffects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Meta-Analysis |
| Backward Digit Span (BDS) | Creatine showed a borderline significant benefit on BDS (p=0.064) vs placebo in 123 people over 6 weeks. (p=0.064)Unclear | 0.029 η²P Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): 123 Follow-up: 6 weeks | Randomised trial · 2023 Study detailsThe effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance-a randomised controlled study. Randomized Controlled Trial |
| Exploratory cognitive tasks | Creatine showed no indication of improved performance on exploratory tasks vs placebo in 123 people over 6 weeks.No clear benefit | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): 123 Follow-up: 6 weeks | Randomised trial · 2023 Study detailsThe effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance-a randomised controlled study. Randomized Controlled Trial |
| Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM) | Creatine showed no significant benefit on RAPM (p=0.327) vs placebo in 123 people over 6 weeks. (p=0.327)No clear benefit | 0.008 η²P Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): 123 Follow-up: 6 weeks | Randomised trial · 2023 Study detailsThe effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance-a randomised controlled study. Randomized Controlled Trial |
| Side effects | Side effects were reported significantly more often with creatine (RR=4.25, p=0.002) vs placebo in 123 people over 6 weeks. (p=0.002)Possible harm | 4.25 RR Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): 123 Follow-up: 6 weeks | Randomised trial · 2023 Study detailsThe effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance-a randomised controlled study. Randomized Controlled Trial |
| backward number recall | Creatine supplementation showed no significant effect on backward number recall compared with placebo in elderly participants (n=15).No clear benefit | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): 15 Follow-up: 1 week | Randomised trial · 2007 Study detailsCreatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individuals. Randomized Controlled Trial |
| cognitive performance (random number generation, forward number/spatial recall, long-term memory tasks) | Creatine supplementation improved most cognitive task scores in elderly participants compared with placebo (n=15).Benefit seen | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): 15 Follow-up: 1 week | Randomised trial · 2007 Study detailsCreatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individuals. Randomized Controlled Trial |
| What was measured | Reported findings | Result and units | Reported sample and duration | Study / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| creatine kinase (CK) concentration at 48, 72, and 96 hr | Creatine significantly reduced CK concentration at 48, 72, and 96 hours vs placebo.Benefit seen | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: 48, 72, and 96 hr | Meta-analysis · 2021 Study detailsCreatine supplementation effect on recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Meta-Analysis |
| creatine kinase (CK) concentration overall | Creatine significantly reduced CK concentration by 30.94 vs placebo in nine studies. (95% CI: -53.19, -8.69; p = .006)Benefit seen | -30.94 Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: Not reported | Meta-analysis · 2021 Study detailsCreatine supplementation effect on recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Meta-Analysis |
| lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) concentration at 48 hr | Creatine significantly reduced LDH concentration at 48 hours vs placebo.Benefit seen | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: 48 hr | Meta-analysis · 2021 Study detailsCreatine supplementation effect on recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Meta-Analysis |
| lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) concentration overall | Creatine showed no significant benefit on overall LDH concentration vs placebo. (WMD = -5.99; 95% CI: -14.49, 2.50; p = .167)No clear benefit | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: Not reported | Meta-analysis · 2021 Study detailsCreatine supplementation effect on recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Meta-Analysis |
| performance | Creatine increased performance in high-intensity tasks compared to baseline during resistance training.Benefit seen | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: Not reported | Systematic review · 2024 Study detailsPerformance-Enhancing Drugs in Healthy Athletes: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses. Systematic Review |
| strength | Creatine increased strength compared to baseline during resistance training.Benefit seen | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: Not reported | Systematic review · 2024 Study detailsPerformance-Enhancing Drugs in Healthy Athletes: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses. Systematic Review |
| total and lean body mass | Creatine increased total and lean body mass compared to baseline during resistance training.Benefit seen | Not reported Recorded unit: Not reported | Sample (as reported): Not reported Follow-up: Not reported | Systematic review · 2024 Study detailsPerformance-Enhancing Drugs in Healthy Athletes: An Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses. Systematic Review |
Associated conditions and community-reported outcomes, wrapped together on one page. Aggregates appear only once enough reports arrive.
How this compound is sold in the UK, and where our readers typically find it.
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